The phonology of a language essentially refers to its sound system, i.e., its systematic employment of consonants, vowels, and other vocalized phenomena such as pitch, stress (or accent), and tone in order to physically convey the meaningful content of the language itself. The phonological system of Ithkuil is detailed in the sections below.
The native script used to represent Ithkuil is both alien and complex (employing over 3600 characters). It is explained in Chapter 11. As a result of this complexity, a system of romanization is employed throughout this grammar to allow the reader to recognize the general phonetic structure of Ithkuil words. Due to the inadequacies of the Roman alphabet in transliterating the large number of phonemes (meaningful sounds) in Ithkuil, the following diacritics are necessary for a phonemic Romanization system: the acute, grave and circumflex accents, the umlaut or dieresis, the cedilla, a superposed dot, and the apostrophe. The uses of these diacritics are explained in the sections below. Additionally, digraphs with a superscript letter h are employed to represent various aspirated consonants.
In furtherance of morpho-phonological efficiency (one of the
language’s goals as explained in the introduction), Ithkuil must have
a large phonemic inventory, specifically 65 consonants and 17 vowels, illustrated
by place and manner of articulation in Table No. 1 below using a special romanized
orthography. Because this is far more than most Western languages, Ithkuil has
many sounds alien to speakers of English or other Western languages. Consequently,
readers other than trained phoneticians (or perhaps speakers of such obscure
languages as Chechen or Abkhaz) will likely have difficulty pronouncing the
language accurately.
Tables 1(a) and 1(b): Phonemic Inventory
Table 1(a): Consonantal Inventory
PLOSIVES |
AFFRICATES |
Fricatives |
Nasals |
Taps/ Trills |
Liquids |
Approximants |
||||||||
plain |
aspirated |
ejective |
plain |
aspirated |
ejective |
|||||||||
un- voiced |
+voice |
un- |
un- voiced |
un- voiced |
+voice |
un- voiced |
un- voiced |
un- voiced |
+voice |
+voice |
+voice |
+voice |
+voice |
|
| BILABIAL | p |
b |
 |
p’ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
m |
_ |
_ |
_ |
| LABIO-VELAR | _ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
w |
| LABIO-DENTAL | _ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
f |
v |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
| DENTAL | t |
d |
 |
t’ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
 |
 |
n |
_ |
_ |
_ |
| ALVEOLAR | _ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
c |
 |
 |
c’ |
s |
z |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
| ALVEOLAR-RETROFLEX | _ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
 |
 |
 |
’ |
 |
 |
_ |
r |
 |
_ |
| POST-ALVEOLAR | _ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
 |
j |
 |
’ |
 |
 |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
| PALATAL |  |
 |
 |
’ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
ç’ |
ç |
 |
_ |
_ |
_ |
y |
| VELAR | k |
g |
 |
k’ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
x’ |
x |
 |
 |
_ |
_ |
_ |
| UVULAR | q |
 |
 |
q’ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
 ’ |
|
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
 |
| PHARYNGAL | _ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
 |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
| GLOTTAL | ’ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
h |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
| LATERAL | _ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
 |
_ |
 |
_ |
_ |
_ |
l |
_ |
| VELARIZED LATERAL | _ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
 |
_ |
Table 1(b): Vocalic Inventory
| FRONT |
CENTRAL |
BACK |
||||
unrounded |
rounded |
unrounded |
rounded |
unrounded |
rounded |
|
High |
î |
ÿ |
_
|
ü |
ï
|
û
|
Mid-High |
i |
_
|
_
|
_
|
_
|
u |
Mid |
ê |
ø |
_
|
_
|
ë
|
ô |
Mid-Low |
e |
ö |
_
|
_
_ |
_
|
o |
Low |
ä |
_
|
a |
_
|
â |
_
|
1.2.1 Pronunciation of Consonants
The following are approximate descriptions of the consonantal
sounds of Ithkuil. In addition to these descriptions, the corresponding symbol
of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is provided in brackets, as well
as their X-SAMPA equivalents for those readers who may be familiar with these
phonetic representation systems. Sound files of actual Ithkuil words have been
provided for those consonants which are uncommon or difficult to pronounce for
English speakers, as well as in other cases to compare and distinguish two similar
but distinct phonemes, e.g., k
versus ,
or c vs.
vs. ,
etc.
1.2.1.1 Aspirated Consonants: The consonants
are
all unaspirated, i.e., without the accompanying puff of air characteristic of
English voiceless stops and affricates. In Ithkuil each of these has an aspirated
counterpart, pronounced like the unaspirated version but with a distinct expulsion
of air, more so than in English. These aspirated counterparts are written with
a following superscript h; thus: 
Example sound files:
1.2.1.2 Ejective Consonants: The same eight
consonants immediately above also have ejective counterparts, which do not exist
in any major Western language, but are found in languages such as Armenian,
Amharic, Georgian, most of the Caucasian languages, and many American Indian
languages. Ejectives (also called glottalized consonants) are consonants accompanied
by simultaneous closure and sudden release of the glottis (vocal chords), which
gives the sound a distinct “popped” or explosive quality. Ejectives
are indicated by an apostrophe following the consonant, thus: 
.
Note: the lateral affricate
has an allophone (alternate pronunciation) as an ejective as well. Example sound
files:
In addition to the above ejectives, there are three additional
ejective consonants, all of them affricates, ç’,
x’,
and ’,
whose rather difficult and exotic pronunciations are described below.
| ç’ |
This sound is a combination of Ithkuil
+ Ithkuil ç
(the voiceless palatal slit fricative described above), the combination
then ejectivized. There is no English approximation. When pronounced properly,
it should sound like a sudden high-pitched explosive hissing. IPA [ ’].
X-SAMPA [c_C_>].
Example sound file:   |
| x’ |
This sound is a combination of Ithkuil k
+ Ithkuil x (the voiceless velar fricative described
above), the combination then ejectivized. There is no English approximation.
When pronounced properly, it should be a harsh, sudden, emphatic k-sound,
accompanied by a high-pitched sound of static, as if someone is verbally
imitating the sound of a glass breaking. IPA [kx’].
X-SAMPA [k_x_>].
Example sound file:  |
| ’ |
This sound is a combination of Ithkuil q
+ Ithkuil
(the voiceless uvular fricative described above), the combination
then ejectivized. There is no English approximation. When pronounced properly,
it sounds like a very harsh, explosive, strangled choking sound. IPA [q ’].
X-SAMPA [q_X_>].
This sound is found in a few obscure Northeast Caucasian languages (e.g.,
Dido, Archi). Example sound file: |
1.2.1.3 Syllabic consonants. Six consonants,
,
can be pronounced as full syllables in absence of a vowel. The phenomenon of
syllabic consonants is fairly common and occurs in colloquial English expressions
such as ‘hmm’ (as when pondering a thought), ‘mm-hmm’
(an expression of approval or agreement), as well as with the consonants n
and l as in the second syllable of words like button and little.
Syllabic nasals are also found in Navajo, as in the words nda ‘no’,
and ndíghílii ‘sunflower.’ In Ithkuil, these
six syllabic consonants can appear as word-initial syllables preceding a consonant
as in 
However, they also occur in special geminate (i.e., doubled) clusters where
the second “half” of the geminated cluster is pronounced as a separate
syllable. Examples: 
.
There are 17 vowels, all of which are pure sounds, not glided
into diphthongs as in English. These include the five primary vowels a,
e, i, o, u.
The vowel a is phonetically an unrounded central low vowel,
IPA [a],
as in Spanish or Italian. The vowels e and o
are similar to the vowels in American English let
and short, phonetically IPA [
]
and [
],
although both sounds are actually somewhat higher, being between low-mid and
mid in height. The vowels i and u are lower
than in Romance languages: i is about halfway between the vowels
in English pit and machine;
u is halfway between English cook
and kook. Sound files: a
e i o u
The vowel â is pronounced as in Western
U.S. all, IPA [
];
ê and ô are mid-height, IPA [e]
and [o]
as in Spanish estos or in French
poésie; î and û
are high (i.e., fully closed) as in Spanish or Italian i and u,
IPA [i]
and [u].
Example sound files: â
ê î ô û
The vowel ä is slightly higher than the
vowel in American English sat but not as high as in
set, IPA [æ^]. The vowel ö
is the rounded equivalent of e, that is, the vowel in French
boeuf or German könnte,
IPA [œ].
The vowel ë is pronounced somewhat like the vowel in American
English cut or nut, although,
more exactly, it is the Ithkuil vowel ô but without rounding
of the lips, a vowel which occurs in Estonian, IPA [
].
The vowel ï is pronounced as an unrounded û,
an obscure vowel found in Turkish and Japanese, IPA 
.
The vowel ü is pronounced as a high central rounded vowel,
as found in Norwegian hus or the Highland Scottish
pronunciation of English book or good,
IPA [
].
The vowel ø is the rounded equivalent of ê,
as in French feu or German schön,
IPA [ø];
the vowel ÿ represents the front rounded vowel of French
du and German über,
IPA [y].
Example sound files: ä
ë ï ö ø ü ÿ
Allophonic distinctions are the phonetic variances in the pronunciation of a particular phoneme depending on the phonetic environment in which that phoneme occurs. These variances, while audible to a trained linguist, are often indistinguishable to lay native speakers of a given language, in that these allophonic variances do not change the meaning of a word and thus play no functional role in the language. As an example, compare the two t-sounds in the English words top and stop. The former is aspirated (i.e., accompanied by a distinct puff of air), while the latter is unaspirated, giving the two sounds a different phonetic quality. However, because consonant aspiration does not function phonemically in English, the difference in the two t-sounds is unnoticeable to most native speakers of English, even though it would be highly noticeable to speakers of languages where consonant aspiration is phonemically relevant (e.g., Hindi and many other Indic languages).
Although such allophonic distinctions are arbitrary within a given language, they are not random; rather, their patterns are completely regular and predictable for any given language (as is true for consonant aspiration in English). Failure to follow the rules for allophonic distinctions when learning a foreign language will result in the speaker having a noticeable “foreign accent” to native speakers of the language (as do most French, Italians, and Spanish-speakers when trying to pronounce English “top” without aspirating the initial t-sound, due to the lack of consonant aspiration in Romance languages.)
The particular phonetic variants of a particular phoneme are known as allophones. The significant allophonic distinctions for Ithkuil are as follows:
| 1.3 PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND RULES |
Besides the actual inventory of consonant and vowels, all languages
have phonological processes which affect how those consonants or vowels are
combined and phonetically articulated. Through these phonological processes,
the possible number of word-forming syllables in the language is expanded. Ithkuil
productively utilizes consonantal gemination, shifts in syllabic stress, and
tone (pitch intonation) to achieve these ends.
Gemination refers to the audible “doubling” in length of a particular sound, usually in reference to consonants. While gemination does not occur in English on true phonological grounds, it does occur on morpho-phonological grounds, as seen in the difference in pronunciation of the phrase ‘a natural’ versus ‘unnatural.’ There are many languages, however, where phonologically-based gemination is an intrinsic component of the phonology (e.g., Italian, Japanese, Finnish).
In Ithkuil, most consonants can be geminated. Also noteworthy is that gemination of certain consonants is allowed in both word-initial and word-final position. The following are the specific rules for consonant gemination in Ithkuil:
1.3.1.1 Intervocalic Gemination. All consonants are capable of intervocalic gemination (i.e., when between two vowels) except for y and w.
1.3.1.2 Word-Initial and Word-Final Gemination. The following consonants, in addition to being capable of intervocalic gemination, are also capable of being geminated in both word-initial and word-final position:
The consonant
can be geminated in word-initial position.
1.3.1.3 Pronunciation of Geminated Consonants.
Consonants which are continuants (i.e., able to be sounded for an indefinite
duration), specifically 
are
simply pronounced for twice as long in duration when geminated. Geminated
r is pronounced as a rapid apico-alveolar trill like
rr in Spanish or Italian. Example sound files:
The non-aspirated plosive consonants b,
d, g,
,
,
k, ,
p, q,
and t, when
geminated, are momentarily held, then released, much like the two d-sounds
in the English phrase bad dog when spoken rapidly.
Example sound file:
The aspirated plosives 
are likewise held momentarily before release, the aspiration occurring upon
release, much like the two t-sounds in the English phrase hot
tar when spoken rapidly. Similarly, the ejective plosives k’,
’,
p’, q’, and
t’ are also held momentarily before release, the glottalic
ejectivization occurring upon release. Example sound files:
The pronunciation of affricates (
)
when geminated depends on whether or not they are in word-final position. If
not in word-final position, they are pronounced by momentarily holding the initial
stop (plosive) component of the affricate before releasing it into the fricative
or sibilant portion. Aspiration or ejectivization, if present, occurs during
release of the plosive into the sibilant or fricative component, e.g., 
is pronounced as IPA [ttš].
For those affricates which can appear as word-final geminates (
),
geminated pronunciation in word-final position is achieved by simply lengthening
the sibilant continuant portion of the affricate (i.e., the
].
X-SAMPA [ t_s`
]. Example sound files: 
].
X-SAMPA [ t_S
]. Example sound files: 
].
X-SAMPA [d_d].
].
X-SAMPA [G\].
Example sound files:
].
X-SAMPA [G].
Example sound files:
].
X-SAMPA [X\].
Example sound files:
].
X-SAMPA [d_Z].
Example sound files:
].
X-SAMPA [J\].
Example sound files: 
].
X-SAMPA [c].
Example sound files:
].
X-SAMPA [5].
Example sound files: 
].
X-SAMPA [K].
Example sound files: 
].
X-SAMPA [n_d].
].
X-SAMPA [N].
].
X-SAMPA [c_K_h].
Example sound files: 
],
[r].
X-SAMPA [4],
[r].
Example sound files: 
]
(a voiced rhoticized retroflex lateral approximant). (No X-SAMPA equivalent).
Example sound files:
].
X-SAMPA [R].
Example sound files:
].
X-SAMPA [ s`].
Example sound file:
].
X-SAMPA [S].Example
sound file: 
].
X-SAMPA [t_d].
].
X-SAMPA [T].
].
X-SAMPA [j\].
Example sound file: 
].
X-SAMPA [ z`].
Example sound file: 
].
X-SAMPA [Z].
Example sound file:
].
X-SAMPA [d_z`].
Example sound file: 
].
Example sound files: 
].
]);
in word-initial position it is more common to pronounce it ejectively.
Example sound files:
].
]).
]).
]).
].
To approximate these sounds, place the mouth in the position to pronounce
an Ithkuil l,
m, n, n, r,
